In general governments aim to reduce their participation in housing financing at
the same time with maintaining their influence on the market through appropriate
regulations. They also support the development of housing market by ensuring the
availability of construction materials, technology and credit and encouraging household
savings for mortgages, etc. (Hegedus et al., 1996).
Some countries support the involvement of private sector in urban infrastructure
rehabilitation whereas others consider the provision of infrastructure and basic
services as a responsibility of local authorities. In both cases the improvement
of urban infrastructure envisages the maintenance and improvement of water supply
and water treatment, the use of sustainable energy and modern energy-saving technologies,
the increase in the efficiency of heat supply systems, the setting up or improvement
of the legal framework for disaster mitigation, etc.
As regards the housing stock, both its increase through new construction and the
rehabilitation of the old stock (including the restoration of historical buildings)
are taken into consideration.
The new framework for urban planning emphasizes the increasing responsibility of
local authorities with regard to land use, finance, investment planning, urban management
and housing. The improvement of tax collection in order to enhance financial resources,
staff training and capacity-building programmes are considered as ways to improve
the cost-efficiency of administration of human settlements (Habitat II Conference,
1996).
According to the official statistics, at the end of 2004 the total number of dwellings
in
Romania
was 8,176 thousands, of which 199 thousands of state majority ownership and 7977
of private majority ownership[14]
(Statistical Yearbook of Romania, 2006). The total number of rooms was 21,054 thousands
and the living floor 309,939 thousand m2, for a population of approx.
21.7 million inhabitants.
In 2004 30,127 new dwellings were completed, of which 25,160 were financed from
private funds and 4,967 from budgetary funds. The latter category had as the main
beneficiary the young and low income families.
The rehabilitation of the LHE (of which almost 50% were built in the socialist period,
counting for approx. one third of the existing dwellings) represents an issue of
a major concern for the Romanian Government, which has included the complex, integrated
urban rehabilitation of the LHE among the basic objectives of its strategy for 2005-2008,
within the physical planning chapter, having the central and local public administration
nominated as responsible institutions. The rehabilitation of the LHE requires
a systemic approach, considering that more than half of the total
Romania
's housing stock has exceeded the estimated span life and the whole housing stock
built before 1990 will have the life cycle completed in the next 20 years. Moreover,
many drawbacks can be noticed in terms of population's comfort and functionality
expectations.
Actors involved in the rehabilitation of LHE. The role of central and local administration
In general, the actors involved in the rehabilitation of LHE in
Romania
fall under the following categories:
- Central public administration ;
- Municipal and sector local public administration;
- NGOs;
- Project management teams and the multi-disciplinary
work teams providing technical expertise;
- investors;
- commercial companies and public utilities providers;
- representatives of the local community:
- owners/owners' associations;
- tenants/tenants' associations;
- owners of buildings and construction sites in the area;
- users, natural and legal entities, carrying out activities
in the area.
Central public administration (a major component being the Ministry of Transports,
Constructions and Tourism) has the following accountabilities:
- devises the national strategy for urban rehabilitation as part of the housing
strategy;
- draws up the specific legislation to facilitate restoration/rehabilitation actions;
- promotes best practice programmes in the field;
- develops fiscal policies and programmes;
- provides assistance-subsidies, fiscal deductions.
Local public administration - authorisation for the rehabilitation of LHE
lies with city and town councils and in the City of
Bucharest
it is divided between the local sector Councils and the General Council of the City
of Bucharest (CGMB).
CGMB and the Mayor of Bucharest formulate the rehabilitation of LHE policy for housing
ensembles and promote specific programmes.
Local councils - according to art 95 section (2) letter c) of the Law on local public
administration no. 215/2001 - approve studies, forecasts, programmes of social-economic
development, land organisation and development, including regional development programmes,
under the law, which are subsequently submitted for the approval of CGMB. Further
on, letter i) specifies: check and approve, according to the law, zone and
detail urban physical plans for the sectors and submit them to CGMB; approve, within
the limits of their authorization, technical economic documentations for local investment
works and ensure the conditions required to carry them out in accordance with the
general urban physical plan of the city of Bucharest and related regulations.
According to the legislation in force, CGMB is authorized to check and approve city
planning documentations of strategic importance. So far, the legal framework has
undergone numerous modifications in terms of competence of authorization and approval
of city planning documentations at zone level. Currently, local sector Councils
play the leading role in the process of housing ensembles restoration.
The role of local public administration involves:
- initiation of urban restoration/rehabilitation
programmes;
- adapting own strategy based on the national
strategy;
- commissioning the city planning plans underpinning
any restoration interventions;
- sustaining through local taxes the restoration/rehabilitation
of certain zones;
- regulating the use of construction sites ;
- correlating district level with city level restoration;
- mediating dialogue between the actors involved
in the restoration process;
- facilitating dialogue between the actors involved
in the restoration process;
- facilitating and guaranteeing access to public
funds.
Project management and the multi-disciplinary work teams design the
restoration programme, coordinate, monitor implementation activities and provide
technical support. Depending on the importance of the housing estate they may establish
the project management team. For instance, in the case of Bucharest, the design
for the restoration/rehabilitation of central city areas may be entrusted to institutions
expressly set up for this particular purpose - e.g. Bucharest 2000 area.
Professional / non-governmental organisations ensure dialogue between the
public administration and civil society representatives, exercise pressure, support
opinion trends or community needs in an organised form; manage community development
programmes complementary to restoration programmes.
Individual apartment owners - express their needs; report dysfunctions; negotiate
with programme designers; take part in restoration programmes by various legal forms
of financing, have the rights and obligations stipulated by Law 114/1996 (Housing
Law, amended and completed by Law 145/1999).
Owners' associations - express the joint opinions of certain groups of citizens,
such as the residents of a block of flats; report dysfunctional services in the
area; may exercise control over services and restoration works in the area, have
the rights and responsibilities stipulated by Law 114/1996.
Tenants/tenants' associations - express individual and group requirements;
negotiate programme solutions, have the rights and responsibilities stipulated by
Law 114/1996.
Owners of buildings in the area - express their requirements, report dysfunctions,
negotiate solutions, and have rights and obligations according to the law.
Users in the area - express their point of view on restoration programmes
through representatives or associations.
Commercial companies and public utilities providers - develop rehabilitation
programmes and set the parameters to be reached; provide the link between the LHE
and the city; provide the financial support for the infrastructure rehabilitation
in own exploitation, have rights and obligations under the law.
The extent of participation of local actors depends on the strategic importance
of the area. Obviously, a central or semi-central residential area requires a greater
involvement of municipal or even central administration. For example, marking the
limits of central intervention areas in view of restoration in
Bucharest
was effected by Government Decision - the Historical Centre, Bucharest 2000.
According to the methodology for the restoration of housing ensembles, the Guide
for drawing up frame programmes for complex urban rehabilitation developed by INCD-URBANPROIECT
in cooperation with UAUIM and UTCB, mentioned above, proposes four groups of actors
(URBANPROIECT, 2002):
- community - representatives mentioned
above under the last six items ;
- restoration forum - a body created especially
for expressing the opinions of those involved in choosing the most adequate and
widely accepted solutions, made up of representatives of all the entities that are
part of the local community, including representatives of the local public administration;
- administration and multi-disciplinary team
- programme management - third item;
- local council - representatives elected
by vote.
The same study developed by URBANPROIECT included pilot studies of
complex city planning according to the methodology of the Guide for Drumul Taberei
and Colentina- Lacul Tei districts in the City of Bucharest. The studies have been
submitted for approval.
The studies reported the main dysfunctions at the level of LHE and individual housing
units - block of flats, apartments. The criteria used in diagnosis analysis were:
- physical and spatial: safety, comfort, efficiency;
- management-related
The multi-criteria analysis was completed with the findings of sociological surveys
by categories of subjects: block of flats administrators, resident population, business
companies, non-governmental organisations, representatives of public utilities companies.
Particularities of the City of
Bucharest
The restoration/rehabilitation operations are the outcome of the restoration/rehabilitation
strategies developed at national or local level. In the case of the City of
Bucharest
, its position as the capital of the country and its aspiration to become a member
of the European capitals network led to particularities in urban restoration/rehabilitation
actions. The priorities of rehabilitation in the case of inhabited areas depend
on their strategic importance within the urban ensemble, as well as on the requirements
expressed by residents, especially in their relationship with sector administrations.
Local sector councils, through their legal competencies are closer to the
interests expressed by citizens and can more easily become involved in various restoration
activities. On the other hand, financial resources make them depend on national
and municipal policies.
For these reasons and due to the fact that restoration/rehabilitation activities
are highly complex, it was deemed necessary to set up restoration/rehabilitation
forums, bringing together all the actors involved. Their purpose is to represent
the interests of the local community, organise debates on the programme proposed
and improve it by involving the population in all the stages of the programme, providing
advisory services and mediating conflicts of interests.
The forums, as proposed in the Guide for developing frame programmes for the complex
restoration of the great ensembles of blocks of flats mentioned above, are
set up by programmes and include all the entities engaged in the restoration process.
As we have already stressed, the strategic importance of the area is decisive in
determining the percentage of local actors involved. It goes without saying that
a central or semi central residential area requires a greater involvement of the
municipal and even central administration. For example, marking the limits of central
intervention areas in view of restoration in
Bucharest
was effected by Government Decision - the Historic Centre, Bucharest 2000.
The housing ensembles in city districts are currently under the authority of sector
administrations. Democratically speaking, this is extremely correct but
observing technical standards requires support from higher authorities. Thus, restoration/rehabilitation
interventions may be selective or questionable in terms of city planning, both technically
and aesthetically. The more dynamic sector administrations, as is the case currently
of sector 5, may carry out questionable actions aimed at restoring housing ensembles
- whitewashing the facades of blocks of flats, without any prior repairs or analyses
of sub-assemblies.
Other actions partially included in restoration measures are those related to restoration
of the central heating systems of buildings Although this action is currently
receiving national and local support, technical coordination is a must as chaotic
interventions could have negative effects on the exterior of buildings. In this
sense, aspects related to the proximity of residents and divergence of interests
should be given careful consideration. It is a well-known fact that the introduction
of individual central heating systems has generated numerous and strong disagreements
between the residents of blocks of flats.
Depending on the importance of the areas planned for restoration a
legal framework for coordination of restoration actions can be put in place. For
instance, in the case of the restructured central area Bucharest 2000, the
general opinion is to set up a specific institutional structure.
District residential areas require a legal and normative framework to regulate
and facilitate the development of programmes area by area. In this sense, the Guide
designed for this particular purpose, stresses the importance of the technical component
of the project team as well as the significance of the forum harmonising the
interests of the actors involved.
To get a clear picture of the requirements of the population, various methods of
consultation have been proposed, depending on the level of interventions - apartment,
block of flats, housing estate. Population can be consulted by means of:
- Questionnaire-based surveys ;
- Discussions on topics of general interest within
the respective programme;
- Organising discussion-groups to include community
leaders )delegates of associations) and public administration authorities, investors;
- Setting up NGOs based on community-public administration-investors
partnerships to manage certain projects.
So far, actions meant to contribute to the restoration of housing estates have been
carried out by involving central and local public administration with the occasional
involvement of investors. The role of civil society remains minimal for the time
being, citizens being insufficiently consulted and involved in actions related
to the restoration of housing ensembles or individual collective living quarters.
Local administration plays a major role in initiating programmes and providing technical
expertise. Mention should be made of the fact that any intervention at housing estate
level requires the drawing up of city planning documentations which are checked
and approved by local councils according to the law. These documentations provide
the mainstay for restoration/rehabilitation programmes and represent a mandatory
stage. They also ensure a legal framework for regional development programmes with
external financing.
Within the Bucharest City Hall (PMB) city planning documentations are subject to
the approval of:
- The Technical Commission for city planning,
comprising specialists in the field and PMB civil servants - Directorate for city
planning and land development, Chief architect;
- Technical Commission of the city local council
- CULPAT- Commission for city planning, public works, land development.
According to the legislation in force, CGMB is responsible for approving only PUZ-type
documentations, for buildings situated in areas of municipal interest, the remaining
areas falling under the authority of sector local councils.
In recent years, the absence of coordination between the municipal and sector levels
has generated uncoordinated land developments on city territory. In this sense,
PMB technical departments and commissions need to increase technical control of
local development as this is the optimum level of coordinating city development
overall. This type of control which ensures the coordination of interventions can
be applied in the stage of checking city planning documentations.
PMB can provide support for restoration actions through its own institutional structure
as well as subordinated departments. One of the public services responsible for
substantiating the technical-city planning decision is ensured by the Bucharest Urban
and Metropolitan Planning Centre, which operates as public institution of
public interest, being a legal entity subordinated to CGMB. The activity of the
centre focuses on:
- Substantiating and devising the territorial
strategy for balanced development of the city and metropolitan space on short, medium
and long term;
- Developing, through specific studies and projects,
the regulations and norms of city planning and land development in order to substantiate
the decision of local municipal administration on development management;
- Protecting public interest and ensuring consistency
in reaching public utility objectives.
The object of activity consists in drawing up/coordinating specific studies, research
projects and documentation applied in the
Bucharest
zone, in the areas of strategic city project and planning, of structuring and managing
the urban data base.
The activity of the Centre is subordinated to CGMB and is carried out in cooperation
with PMB specialised directorates, with the Directorate for city planning and land
development and with the Bucharest Chief Architect institution.
Examples of the involvement of local public administration in supporting city planning and rehabilitation of LHE
3.1. The building restoration/rehabilitation in the City of
Bucharest
The development programme for 2000-2008 developed by the
Bucharest
City
Hall
includes a series of objectives such as « Urban Rehabilitation, reconstruction and regeneration in Bucharest
» refers to the rehabilitation of LHE.
Actions of urban rehabilitation in the City of
Bucharest
are currently focused on three types of areas:
- Historical areas;
- Deconstructed urban areas;
- Collective housing areas.
The areas of crucial importance for the city-capital are considered to be including
patrimony and local identity values and the poles of strategic development. In this
sense restoration programmes with international financing for the Historic Centre
area have already been initiated.
The Historic Centre Area - extending over approx. 50 ha - currently includes
housing, services and culture facilities. Its main characteristic is the identity
value conferred by the high density of historical monuments and environmental buildings.
Restoration programmes are maintained in accordance with European trends in the
field, which promote: conservation of the buildings patrimony, traditional activities,
cultural and trade activities, utilization for tourism purposes, efficient management
of specific resources.
In the period 2000-2002, PMB developed in cooperation with UNDP the project Beautiful
Bucharest with the following objectives:
- revitalisation of the historic centre - restoring
facades, pavements;
- training young adults coming from children's
homes to facilitate their finding jobs.
Studies carried out by PMB on this occasion revealed the complexity of issues related
to urban restoration in this particular area. As a result there are now several
actions focused on the historic centre of the capital city.
It should be noted that any intervention at urban area level may be carried out
according to the law, only after city planning documentations have been drawn up
and then approved by the local administration. In this sense, the PUZ-type city
planning documentation for the historic centre has already been drawn up and approved
and the intervention strategy for the revitalisation of the area is due to be completed
soon.
The complex character of the intervention requires coordination of the following
sector-based development policies:
- utilities and services policy;
- investment policy ;
- traffic policy;
- rent policy;
- environment protection policy;
- institutional development policy.
The possible variants of the institutional frameworks from which GMB will have to
choose in the future include:
- the City Hall ensures the management of operations
and the private sector operates on the basis of trade contracts in the area;
- the City Hall establishes partnerships with
the private sector for the management of operations;
- a City Hall directorate becomes a commercial
company with CGMB as sole shareholder for the management of operations.
There is currently an on-going project for the restoration of the historic centre
with a BERD contribution totalling 9.5 million EURO. The major component of the
project is the rehabilitation and extension of water, sewage, gas, electricity,
telephony, pedestrian passages, and street lights systems. The completion date is
set for 2006.
Restoration of destructured zones. Destructured zones are the consequence
of urban interventions dating from socialist years left unfinished. The main dysfunctions
are related to the deficient street network and insufficiently connected to the
urban system, unused land with an uncertain legal status which impedes investments,
unclear spatial and functional structure from the point of view of the Urban Planning
Regulations. Interventions in areas of this kind can only be carried out following
approval of zone and detail Urban Plans by CGMB and local councils, from case to
case and according to the law.
Such destructured zones are to be found on the outskirts of the city, which have
only recently been included in the built environment area, and in the central areas
previously affected by demolition. Typical for the capital is the zone of
the new civic centre known as such after the launch of the Bucharest 2000 Zone city
planning competition.
The zone covers approx. 485 ha, of which 2,000 ha are free of buildings.
The basic functions are: higher standard housing conditions, services for the population
and economic agents, the national-level administrative function.
City planning objectives include:
- setting up an urban pole with services of cross-municipal,
national and international importance;
- reshaping the existing political-administrative
centre;
- rehabilitation of destructured zones.
The rehabilitation strategy consists of:
- utilising the land potential by erecting representative
housing estates;
- promoting development of profitable mixed functions
(offices, trade, hotel, entertainment, culture, housing);
- increasing the attractiveness and technical-urban
endowment;
- promoting competitive urban management and marketing
in order to utilize the extremely high potential of the area.
Rehabilitation of LHE districts Collective, LHE areas which take the form
of large ensembles of blocks of flats are to be found on the outskirts of the city
or in semi central zones. They were built in the course of 3 decades, especially
between 1960 and 1985, housing around 1,300,000 residents. The height of blocks
of flats ranges from ground floor + 4 stories and ground floor + 10 stories. The
structure is brick in the case of low buildings and reinforced concrete for high
buildings.
The main dysfunctions are noticeable in the case of housing facilities, construction
equipment, and city planning. They emerged as a result of the wear and tear of constructions
and installations, the degradation of spaces used in common, the changing needs
of the resident population:
- absence of adequate social equipment at local
level;
- arid micro-climate caused by the destruction
of vegetation;
- shortage of parking lots and garages;
- technical and spatial solutions which no longer
meet current requirements, monotonous, unattractive aspect, disorganised facades.
City planning objectives include:
- improving the technical, functional and aesthetic
quality of individual or ensemble housing units;
- improving the living, health and safety conditions
of residents.
The rehabilitation strategy is focused on:
- renovation, restoration and re-configuration
of the public utilities infrastructure, public transport system, personalization
and differentiation of individual or ensemble housing units, creating community
contact venues;
- completing the system of social-cultural facilities
and equipment, correcting and adapting architectural and urban planning solutions;
- involving residents in managing collective issues
- promoting modern forms of partnership between the local administration, inhabitants
and residents of the housing areas.
The anticipated effects of restoration measures include: improved
comfort for residents, adapting living quarters to meet the requirements of residents,
increasing community cohesion.
The City Administration is currently focusing on strategic interventions, so the
rehabilitation component has specific features Consequently, the
main priorities are directed towards providing quality public services and public
utilities equipment with positive impact on housing facilities, as part of the general
city planning system and as part of the structure of housing ensembles.
The programmes currently supported by PMB with own funds and co-financing
include:
- improvement of the roads and motorways system;
- improvement of the water supply and sewage
system;
- upgrading the heating distribution system;
- fitting blocks of flats with water and gas consumption
meters.
The projects refer to:
- projects
included in the Programme for the rehabilitation and modernization of the heating
system in
Bucharest
- Programme START 1998-1999 - under implementation.
- Project
for the modernization and rehabilitation of the thermal energy production and distribution
system -1999 - finalized.
- Project
for the modernization of the water-supply system 2000- finalized.
Other projects specific to the capital are related to the reinforcement of housing
constructions. According to GEO 20/1994, the central administration,
local city administration and residents' administration are responsible for the
commissioning of expert evaluations, design and reinforcement of blocks of flats
exposed to seismic risk. So far, 122 housing constructions are in different stages
of intervention, and PMB foresees around 10-15 buildings per year will undergo expert
evaluations. All these measures although selective interventions, are part of a
programme developed at government level and are components of each and every restoration
action and intervention priority respectively.
3.2. Aspects of the rehabilitation of LHE in the City of
Galaţi
Issues related to the construction of blocks of flats in
Galaţi
. LHE in
Galaţi
can be grouped under three generations, each with its specific issues: constructions
built before 1950, constructions in the period 1950-1977 and constructions built
after the earthquake of 1977. All constructions are affected by the type of soil
on which the city is built, clay on top with ground-water layer underneath, which
has led to the flooding of basements in buildings situated in the city valley and
centre - Bădălan, Port, Centru districts. The unproven explanation given by constructors
is that the new blocks of flats built after 1997 have created an additional pressure
in the uppermost area of the city leading to a rise in the water level in the lower
part of the city, based on the principle of communication vessels.
Restoration works required for buildings erected before 1950.
The main works required for these buildings include:
- Reinforcement of the resistance structure
- Changing the interior of flats to meet the current requirements of residents;
- Upgrading and supplementing interior installations based on the new land development
structure;
- Restoring the vertical systematization.
The main problem with these buildings, however, is the resistance structure which
is of a mixed type, as a rule, with full-brick walls and frames of reinforced concrete
pillars and beams, reinforced concrete floors covered with wooden framework. Most
of these buildings will have to be demolished as they have long exceeded the life
expectancy of this type of constructions. 15,000 buildings are currently in this
situation.
Restoration works required for buildings erected in the period 1950-1977.
Blocks of flats built especially in the
first decade of the period, followed the Russian model: blocks of reinforced concrete
with brick walls and large, high rooms. These blocks now require a reinforcement
of the resistance structure and especially the upgrading of electric and water supply
installations, and replacement of wooden window frames.
Blocks of flats built in the period 1960-1977, mainly of reinforced concrete frames
with cell concrete filling, require complicated works to modify the resistance structure
and upgrade water supply installations and electric systems. All of these buildings
have an exterior design problem, namely ugly, scaly facades with balconies of all
kinds, open, glassed-in, of various colours giving the impression of post-war debris.
Restoration works required for buildings after the earthquake of 1977.
In general, these blocks of flats require only upgrading of installations
in the flats, block basements and exterior renovation.
A major issue in LHE is the rehabilitation of green spaces, access lanes and main
access roads.
Institutional framework for house repairs. The main institution responsible
for repairs of blocks of flats (cleaning basements, insulation fitting) is the Local
Council within
Galaţi City Hall
in cooperation with the administrators of residents' associations and apartment
owners.
Difficulties encountered in programme development. The main difficulty in
carrying out LHE rehabilitation is the chronic shortage of financial resources of
the Local Council and city citizens who have been severely affected by mass restructuring
in major local companies: Galati Shipyard and SIDEX Galaţi Steel Works.
Owing to the lack of financial resources, around 85% of citizens in
Galati
are struggling to earn money for food and the bare necessities for their children.
Of the 85% inhabitants with limited resources, 33% are residents barely above the
poverty line, failing to cover the maintenance expense in blocks of flats where
they live, so APATERM Galaţi, the main cold and hot water supplier is due to receive
from the citizens an outstanding amount of 150 billion lei of which 100 billion
have been outstanding for over a year.
Since 90% of flats are private property, the owners are responsible for rehabilitation
works. Lacking financial resources, the owners cannot afford to pay the expenses
for such works. If the owner had been a company profiled on building administration,
then it would have been responsible for all rehabilitation and maintenance works.
Proposals for the LHE rehabilitation. The measures required for the rehabilitation
of LHE fall under the following categories:
a) to ensure financial resources:
- Development of financing projects by specialised companies;
- Modification of local taxes by setting taxes on the real
value of the buildings (the value to be determined by ANEVAR expert evaluators),
not on the historic value.
b) to harmonize the LHE:
- Setting up an authority financed by the Local Council, to
draw up the plans for building façade restoration;
- Accrediting construction companies to repair LHE - accreditation
includes verification of the capacity and financial reliability of such construction
companies;
c) for the education of the population:
- Television programmes explaining the responsibilities of
citizens living in blocks of flats (programmes for cleaning, garbage depositing,
maintenance of plumbing systems, restrictions to throwing parties, etc.)
- Fines for citizens who do not observe the rules set by the
community ;
- Freeing prisoners with sentences of less than three years
and involving them in community service - city restoration works.